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      電子發燒友網>電子資料下載>模擬數字>低電平測量手冊

      低電平測量手冊

      2014-06-19 | pdf | 4107KB | 次下載 | 2積分

      資料介紹

      吉時利-低電平測量手冊，微電流/電壓測量電路設計參考。
      SECTION 1 Low Level DC Measuring Instruments
      1.1 Introduction ...............................................................................................1-3
      1.2 Theoretical Measurement Limits ..........................................................1-3
      1.3 Instrument Definitions ............................................................................1-5
      1.3.1 The Electrometer ......................................................... 1-5
      1.3.2 The DMM ......................................................................1-7
      1.3.3 The Nanovoltmeter .......................................................1-7
      1.3.4 The Picoammeter .........................................................1-8
      1.3.5 The Source Measure Unit Instrument .........................1-8
      1.3.6 The Low Current Preamp ............................................ 1-9
      1.3.7 The Micro-ohmmeter ................................................... 1-9
      1.3.8 The Low Current Source ............................................. 1-9
      1.4 Understanding Instrument Specifications .......................................1-10
      1.4.1 Definition of Accuracy Terms .....................................1-10
      1.4.2 Accuracy ......................................................................1-11
      1.4.3 Deratings .....................................................................1-15
      1.4.4 Noise and Noise Rejection ..........................................1-15
      1.4.5 Speed ..........................................................................1-17
      1.5 Circuit Design Basics .............................................................................1-17
      1.5.1 Voltmeter Circuits .......................................................1-17
      1.5.2 Ammeter Circuits ........................................................1-19
      1.5.3 Coulombmeter Circuit ................................................1-23
      1.5.4 High Resistance Ohmmeter Circuits ..........................1-24
      1.5.5 Low Resistance Ohmmeter Circuits............................1-26
      1.5.6 Complete Instruments ............................................... 1-28
      SECTION 2 Measurements from High Resistance Sources
      2.1 Introduction ...............................................................................................2-2
      2.2 Voltage Measurements from High Resistance Sources ...................2-2
      2.2.1 Loading Errors and Guarding ......................................2-3
      2.2.2 Insulation Resistance of the Test Circuit ....................2-11
      2.3 Low Current Measurements ................................................................2-15
      2.3.1 Leakage Currents and Guarding ................................2-15
      2.3.2 Noise and Source Impedance .....................................2-21
      2.3.3 Zero Drift ................................................................... 2-23
      2.3.4 Generated Currents ................................................... 2-23
      2.3.5 Voltage Burden ...........................................................2-31iv?
      2.3.6 Overload Protection................................................... 2-33
      2.3.7 AC Interference and Damping ...................................2-34
      2.3.8 Using a Coulombmeter to Measure Low Current ..... 2-35
      2.4 High Resistance Measurements .........................................................2-39
      2.4.1 Constant-Voltage Method ...........................................2-40
      2.4.2 Constant-Current Method .........................................2-41
      2.5 Charge Measurements..........................................................................2-46
      2.5.1 Error Sources .............................................................2-47
      2.5.2 Zero Check .................................................................2-48
      2.5.3 Extending the Charge Measurement Range?
      of the Electrometer ....................................................2-48
      2.6 General Electrometer Considerations...............................................2-49
      2.6.1 Making Connections .................................................. 2-50
      2.6.2 Electrostatic Interference and Shielding ....................2-51
      2.6.3 Environmental Factors ............................................... 2-55
      2.6.4 Speed Considerations ................................................ 2-56
      2.6.5 Johnson Noise ............................................................2-62
      2.6.6 Device Connections ...................................................2-66
      2.6.7 Analog Outputs ..........................................................2-69
      2.6.8 Floating Input Signals .................................................2-70
      2.7 High Impedance Measurement Optimization Summary ..............2-71
      SECTION 3 Measurements from Low Resistance Sources
      3.1 Introduction ...............................................................................................3-2
      3.2 Low Voltage Measurements ...................................................................3-2
      3.2.1 Effects of Error Sources on Voltage Measurements ....3-2
      3.2.2 Thermoelectric EMFs ...................................................3-3
      3.2.3 Internal Offsets ............................................................ 3-7
      3.2.4 Zero Drift ..................................................................... 3-7
      3.2.5 RFI/EMI ........................................................................3-9
      3.2.6 Johnson Noise .............................................................3-10
      3.2.7 1/f Noise ......................................................................3-11
      3.2.8 Line Cycle Interference and Line Cycle Integration .. 3-12
      3.2.9 Magnetic Fields .......................................................... 3-13
      3.2.10 Ground Loops .............................................................3-14
      3.2.11 Ways to Reduce Noise .................................................3-16
      3.2.12 Common-Mode Current and Reversal Errors ............3-17Low Level Measurements Handbook v
      3.3 Low Resistance Measurements..........................................................3-18
      3.3.1 Lead Resistance and Four-Wire Method .................... 3-18
      3.3.2 Thermoelectric EMFs and?
      Offset Compensation Methods ..................................3-20
      3.3.3 Non-Ohmic Contacts ................................................. 3-25
      3.3.4 Device Heating ........................................................... 3-26
      3.3.5 Dry Circuit Testing ..................................................... 3-27
      3.3.6 Testing Inductive Devices ..........................................3-28
      3.4 Measurement Optimization Summary for?
      Low Impedance Measurements .........................................................3-29
      SECTION 4 Applications
      4.1 Introduction ..............................................................................................4-2
      4.2 Applications for Measuring Voltage from?
      High Resistance Sources ........................................................................4-2
      4.2.1 Capacitor Dielectric Absorption .................................4-2
      4.2.2 Electrochemical Measurements ..................................4-6
      4.3 Low Current Measurement Applications ...........................................4-9
      4.3.1 Capacitor Leakage Measurements ..............................4-9
      4.3.2 Low Current Diode Measurements .......................... 4-13
      4.3.3 Low Current Measurements of MOSFETs ...................4-16
      4.3.4 Light Measurements with Photomultiplier Tubes ..... 4-18
      4.3.5 Ion Beam Measurements .......................................... 4-21
      4.3.6 Photoconductive Current of PIN Photodiode ........... 4-23
      4.3.7 Avalanche Photodiode Reverse Bias Current?
      Measurements ............................................................ 4-24
      4.3.8 Current-Voltage Characterization of?
      Carbon Nanotube (CNT) FETs .................................. 4-26
      4.4 High Resistance Measurement Applications ..................................4-28
      4.4.1 Surface Insulation Resistance Testing of?
      Printed Circuit Boards ..............................................4-28
      4.4.2 Resistivity Measurements of Insulating Materials ....4-30
      4.4.3 Resistivity Measurements of Semiconductors ..........4-34
      4.4.4 Voltage Coefficient Testing of High Ohmic?
      Value Resistors ..........................................................4-44
      4.5 Charge Measurement Applications ..................................................4-45
      4.5.1 Capacitance Measurements ......................................4-45vi?
      4.5.2 Using a Faraday Cup to Measure Static Charge?
      on Objects .................................................................4-46
      4.6 Low Voltage Measurement Applications ........................................4-48
      4.6.1 Standard Cell Comparisons ......................................4-48
      4.6.2 High Resolution Temperature Measurements?
      and Microcalorimetry ...............................................4-50
      4.6.3 Hall Voltage and Resistivity Measurements?
      of a Six-Terminal Bridge Sample ................................ 4-53
      4.7 Low Resistance Measurement Applications ..................................4-54
      4.7.1 Contact Resistance ....................................................4-54
      4.7.2 Superconductor Resistance Measurements .............. 4-57
      4.7.3 Resistivity Measurements of Conductive Materials .. 4-59
      SECTION 5 Low Level Instrument Selection Guide
      5.1 Introduction ...............................................................................................5-2
      5.2 Instrument and Accessory Selector Guides........................................5-2
      APPENDIX A Cable and Connector Assembly
      APPENDIX B Glossary
      APPENDIX C Safety Considerations
      ?Test System Safety ...................................................................................C-2
      ?General Safety Considerations .............................................................C-2
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